Númenor: When Men Invaded Heaven | Tolkien's Second Age

Research & Sources

Research Notes: The Fall of Númenor: When Men Conquered Heaven and Drowned

Overview

The Fall of Númenor represents one of the most catastrophic events in Tolkien's legendarium—a Second Age apocalypse that transformed not only the geography of Arda but its very cosmology. This cataclysm, told primarily in the Akallabêth (the fourth part of The Silmarillion), chronicles how the greatest civilization of Men descended from blessed recipients of divine favor into corrupted servants of darkness who dared assault heaven itself. The story culminates in divine intervention that literally changes the shape of the world from flat to round, removing the Undying Lands from mortal reach forever.

The narrative operates on multiple levels: as Tolkien's reimagining of the Atlantis myth, as a "second fall of man" echoing Biblical themes, as a meditation on mortality and immortality, and as a political allegory exploring how pride, fear of death, and authoritarian corruption can destroy even the most enlightened civilization. The hook of the story is elegantly simple: they had everything—extended lifespans, wisdom, power, friendship with Elves, the favor of the Valar. Then Sauron gave them one idea: you deserve more.

Primary Sources

The Silmarillion (Akallabêth)

The Akallabêth: The Downfall of Númenor is the fourth part of The Silmarillion, edited by Christopher Tolkien from his father's later texts. It tells the story of the Downfall of Númenor after the Númenóreans, descendants of the Edain who aided the Elves against Morgoth in the late First Age, turned by degrees against the Valar and were later corrupted by Sauron.

Key Passage on Sauron's Transformation: "But Sauron was not of mortal flesh, and though he was robbed now of that shape in which he had wrought so great an evil, so that he could never again appear fair to the eyes of Men, yet his spirit arose out of the deep and passed as a shadow and a black wind over the sea, and came back to Middle-earth and to Mordor that was his home." (The Silmarillion, Akallabêth) On Elendil's Escape: "The last leaders of the Faithful, Elendil and his sons, escaped from the Downfall with nine ships, bearing a seedling of Nimloth, and the Seven Seeing-stones (gifts of the Eldar to their House); and they were borne on the wings of a great storm and cast up on the shores of Middle-earth." On Ar-Pharazôn's Pride: According to The Peoples of Middle-earth, "in his youth was not unlike the Edain of old in mind also, though he had strength of will rather than of wisdom." When Ar-Pharazôn heard that Sauron was expanding his power, "his heart was filled with the desire of power unbounded and the sole dominion of his will. And he determined without counsel of the Valar, or the aid of any wisdom but his own, that the title of King of Men he himself would claim... for in his pride he deemed that no king could ever arise so mighty as to vie with the Heir of Eärendil."

Unfinished Tales

Unfinished Tales provides additional context through "The Line of Elros: Kings of Númenor," a chronicle listing all the Kings of Númenor from its foundation to its destruction. The text states that the Akallabêth (as published in The Silmarillion) was written by Elendil after the Exiles of Númenor settled in Middle-earth, giving it the character of a survivor's account.

"The Line of Elros" reads like an expanded version of the LotR Appendices, providing chronological detail, genealogical succession, and factual enumeration about the decline of the kingdom. It emphasizes Númenor's maritime themes—explorations, shipbuilding, and coastal settlements—while introducing early signs of hubris, such as overreliance on sea power and defiance of divine boundaries.

The Lord of the Rings (Appendices)

The appendices provide chronological anchoring and genealogical connections between the Fall of Númenor and the Third Age kingdoms of Gondor and Arnor. They trace the survival of Númenórean culture, bloodlines, and artifacts (especially the palantíri and the White Tree lineage) through to the War of the Ring.

Elendil's Proclamation: Unfinished Tales states that, upon landing in Middle-earth, Elendil proclaimed in Quenya: "Et Eärello Endorenna utúlien. Sinome maruvan ar Hildinyar tenn' Ambar-metta!" meaning "Out of the Great Sea to Middle-earth I am come. In this place will I abide, and my heirs, unto the ending of the world." Significantly, Aragorn—his 40th generation descendant in father-to-son line—spoke these traditional words again when he took up the crown of Gondor in The Return of the King.

Tolkien's Letters

Tolkien provided crucial philosophical commentary on mortality in his letters:

On Death as Gift: "The Doom (or the Gift) of Men is mortality, freedom from the circles of the world." (Letter to Milton Waldman) On the Theme of Death: When C. Ouboter of Rotterdam asked Tolkien about the overall message of The Lord of the Rings, Tolkien initially replied that there was no intended message. However, he continued: "It is only in reading the work myself (with criticisms in mind) that I become aware of the dominance of the theme of Death. (Not that there is any original 'message' in that: most of human art & thought is similarly preoccupied.) But certainly Death is not an Enemy!" On Divine Punishment as Gift: "A divine 'punishment' is also a divine 'gift', if accepted, since its object is ultimate blessing." The Real Theme: "The real theme for me is (…) Death and Immortality: the mystery of the love of the world in the hearts of a race 'doomed' to leave and seemingly lose it; the anguish in the hearts in a race 'doomed' not to leave it, until its whole [world ends]." On Sauron's Inability to Reform: In Letter No. 200, Tolkien explained that each bodily reformation "used up some of the inherent energy of the spirit, which might be called the 'will' or the effective link between the indestructible mind and being and the realization of its imagination." This explains why Sauron lost his fair form permanently after Númenor's destruction. On Númenor as a Second Fall: Tolkien, a devout Roman Catholic, stated that the Downfall of Númenor (Akallabêth) was effectively a second fall of man, with "its central theme .. (inevitably, I think, in a story of Men) a Ban, or Prohibition."

The History of Middle-earth

Christopher Tolkien notes in Volume IX (Sauron Defeated) that his father was developing two traditions concerning Númenor's history, each with its own retelling of the Downfall: The Fall of Númenor, a more Elvish version, and a "Mannish" form, The Drowning of Anadûnê.

Christopher Tolkien also noted the political dimensions of the story, arguing that his father likely found the fall of Númenor at least in part an implicit critique of the racialism and nationalism of the Nazis, describing "the withdrawal of the besotted and aging king from the public view, the unexplained disappearance of people unpopular with the 'government', informers, prisons, torture, secrecy, fear of the night; propaganda in the form of the 'rewriting of history'."

Key Facts & Timeline

The Founding of Númenor

- Second Age 1-32: The Valar prepared a large island in the western part of the Great Sea as a reward for the Edain's struggle against Morgoth in the War of Wrath. Ulmo raised the island halfway between Middle-earth (Endor) and Aman. The Edain named it Elenna ("starwards"), later known as Númenor. - SA 32: Elros, son of Eärendil (and twin brother of Elrond), led his people across the sea, guided by the Star of Eärendil his father, to the island. He founded the realm of Númenor and became its first King. He was granted long life and lived for centuries (442 years total).

The Golden Age

- SA 600: The first ships sailed from Númenor to Middle-earth, making contact with Gil-galad and helping the "Twilight Men" of Middle-earth as teachers. - Early Second Age: The Valar blessed the Númenóreans with extended lifespans (initially reaching 200 to 300 years for the royal house and nobility), along with greater physical stature, wisdom, and vigor compared to other Men. Eönwë came among them and taught them; they were given wisdom and power and life more enduring than any other mortal race. - From the start, there was friendship between the Dúnedain of Númenor and the Eldar of Tol Eressëa. The white swan ships of the Eldar brought many gifts: birds, trees, herbs, and most notably the sapling of Celeborn (Nimloth), the White Tree.

The Ban of the Valar

- From the beginning: The Valar placed a ban on the Men of Númenor: they must never sail to Eressëa, nor westward out of sight of their own land. In all other directions they could go as they would. The purpose was to prevent them from seeking the Undying Lands, which lay tantalizingly close to the west of Númenor. - The Valar feared—rightly—that the Númenóreans would seek to enter Aman to gain immortality (even though a mortal in Aman remains mortal). The name "the Undying Lands" does not mean that the land itself causes mortals to live forever—the realm gets its name from its immortal inhabitants: Elves, as well as the Valar and Maiar.

The Shadow Falls

- SA 1800: The first reference that "the Shadow falls on Númenor" in the Tale of Years. - SA 1869-2029: Reign of Tar-Ciryatan. The aggressive expansion and its corrupting effects began. - SA 2029-2221: Reign of Tar-Atanamir the Great (also called "the Unwilling"). He was the first King of Númenor who spoke openly against the Ban of the Valar, claiming that the "life of the Eldar was his by right." He was the first King who refused to give up his life and the Sceptre of Númenor to his heir, living on into old age and senility. After his death, the lifespans of the House of Elros began to wane. In this time, the Númenóreans became obsessed with recalling or prolonging life but only achieved the ability to preserve dead bodies.

The Split: King's Men vs. Faithful

- SA 2251: During the reign of Tar-Ancalimon, the Men of Númenor were split into two factions. The King's Men (also called King's Party and King's Folk) were hostile to the Eldar and the Valar, envying their immortality and despising the Ban. The Faithful (Elendili, meaning "Elf-friends") remained loyal to the Valar and friendly to the Elves; they were led by the Lords of Andúnië. - SA 2350: To escape persecution, the Faithful founded the haven of Pelargir on the shores of Middle-earth (as opposed to Umbar which became a haven of the King's Men).

Linguistic Rebellion

- SA 2899: Ar-Adûnakhôr took his name in Adûnaic (rather than Quenya) and forbade anyone to speak the Elven tongues in his presence. Adûnaic was now the language of the royal court. - During Ar-Gimilzôr's reign: He outlawed the use of Elvish anywhere in Númenor and forcefully moved the Faithful (including the family of Andúnië) to the port city of Rómenna on the east coast of the island where the king could keep an eye on them.

Tar-Palantir's Brief Reform

- SA 3175-3255: Reign of Tar-Palantir (born Inziladûn). His mother Inzilbêth was secretly a member of the Faithful and taught her son to be an Elf-friend. When he became king, he sought to repent of his predecessors' actions and took a royal name in Quenya. For a while the Faithful had peace; he went at due times to the Hallow upon the Meneltarma, and the White Tree was again given tendance and honour. He prophesied that when the Tree died, the line of Kings also would perish. - However, his repentance was too late to appease the Valar. The Valar did not respond because of the insolence of the Kings before him and because the greater part of the Númenóreans were still hostile to the Lords of the West. Elven ships never came from Tol Eressëa to Númenor again. Tar-Palantir became filled with sorrow and began spending time at the tower of Tar-Minastir in the west, looking westward with nostalgia. His brother Gimilkhâd followed the policies of their father and became the leader of the King's Men, opposing Tar-Palantir both openly and in secret.

The Rise of Ar-Pharazôn and Sauron's Corruption

- SA 3255: Ar-Pharazôn the Golden seized power from his cousin Míriel (Tar-Palantir's daughter) and forced her to marry him, giving her an Adûnaic name (Ar-Zimraphel). - SA 3261: Ar-Pharazôn invaded Middle-earth with such splendor and might that Sauron's own servants deserted him. Since Sauron perceived he could not defeat the Númenóreans through strength of arms, he changed into his fair form and humbled himself before Ar-Pharazôn. - SA 3262: Sauron was taken as prisoner to Númenor. The King stripped him of his titles and decreed he would be taken as a hostage. Sauron acted as if this decision dismayed him, but it actually furthered his plans to destroy Ar-Pharazôn and the Númenóreans in retaliation for this humiliation. As soon as he set foot on the island, he began corrupting minds. - SA 3265: Three years after being brought to Númenor, Sauron used "the cunning of his mind" to become the primary councillor of Ar-Pharazôn and corrupted most of the people, so that they turned to the worship of Darkness and Melkor its Lord.

The Temple and Human Sacrifice

- Around SA 3280: After the Númenóreans fully embraced the adoration of Darkness, Sauron commanded for a mighty Temple to be built on a hill in the middle of Armenelos. The Temple was a "wonderful, but terrible" structure with a circular foundation, constructed mainly of marble, gold, glass, and steel. Its walls were five-hundred feet high and fifty-feet thick; it was five-hundred feet across from the center of the base. Beneath the Temple were prisons and chambers of torture. The Temple was roofed by a mighty silver dome which could be seen at a distance, though the dome was soon blackened from the smoke of rituals, as the structure's innermost sanctum contained an altar of fire. - Nimloth, the White Tree, was cut down, and its wood was used to light the first fire on the altar. However, Isildur had learned about this from his grandfather Amandil and stole a fruit from Nimloth, sneaking into the courts of the capital from which the Faithful were forbidden. He suffered many wounds during this mission and came near death, but when the first leaf opened in spring, Isildur was healed. - Around SA 3300: Sauron established himself as High Priest of Melkor, "Lord of the Dark." The King's Men began making human sacrifices upon the altar, hoping that Melkor would release them from the Gift of Ilúvatar (death), but they did not escape the fate of Men by making these bloody offerings. Many of the sacrifice victims were among the Faithful, though they were never sentenced openly based on their rejection of Morgoth alone. Instead, they were accused of treason, sedition, or conspiracy and dragged before the altar where they were burned alive in the name of the Dark Lord.

Divine Warnings

- During the Great Armament's construction: The Valar sent warnings to the Númenóreans in the form of terrible thunderstorms and clouds shaped like Eagles. From the western horizon, a colossal cloud appeared, "shaped as it were an eagle, with pinions spread to the north and the south… and some of the eagles bore lightning beneath their wings, and thunder echoed between sea and cloud." These signals only caused the King and his people to harden their hearts yet more, and Ar-Pharazôn (prompted by Sauron) proclaimed, "The Lords of the West have plotted against us. They strike first. The next blow shall be ours!" - During one such storm, "a fiery bolt smote the dome of the Temple and shore it asunder," causing it to catch fire. However, the Temple itself was unaffected, since Sauron stood atop the dome, defying the lightning and remaining unharmed. As a result, the King's Men believed him to be a god and obeyed him without question.

The Great Armament and Invasion

- SA 3310: Ar-Pharazôn, feeling the coming of his death and fearing it, initiated the building of the Great Armament. He had listened to Sauron's lies that he would become immortal if he possessed the undying lands of Aman. This vast military fleet was developed from SA 3310-3319 to cross the Sea, assail the Valar, and wrest immortality from them. - When Ar-Pharazôn and Sauron were preparing their assault on Valinor, Amandil told Elendil to gather the Faithful in Rómenna and escape to Middle-earth. Elendil did as his father bade, and gathered the Faithful and their wives and children in 9 ships, and waited just off the coast. - Amandil himself decided to sail west towards the Undying Lands to warn the Valar and plead for them to forgive the Númenóreans and not punish them for their king's folly. As he said: "as for the Ban, I will suffer in myself the penalty, lest all my people should become guilty." Amandil set off with one ship and three trusted companions, but his fate remains unknown. He wanted to do what his ancestors Eärendil and Elwing had done—break the Ban of the Valar, but for a higher purpose. Amandil was never heard of again.

The Downfall

- SA 3318: Meneldil was born—the fourth child of Anárion and the last man born in Númenor. - SA 3319: The Númenórean fleet was so numerous that it was compared to an archipelago of a thousand islands and it surrounded all of the island of Tol Eressëa on its way to Aman. Coming upon the silent shores of Valinor, Ar-Pharazôn almost wavered but his pride won out—he landed and claimed the land for his own. - The Valar feared that the Númenorean army could wreak havoc in Valinor, but they were forbidden from killing or otherwise using force against Men. Manwë, chief of the Valar, called upon Ilúvatar, and for that time the Valar laid down their government of Arda. - Ilúvatar responded by showing forth his power and changing the fashion of the world. He opened a great chasm in the sea between Númenor and the Deathless Lands, and the waters flowed down into it. All the fleets of the Númenóreans were drawn down into the abyss, and they were drowned and swallowed up forever. - Ar-Pharazôn himself, along with his host that had landed on Aman, was "buried under falling hills" and would remain in the Caves of the Forgotten until the Last Battle. - Númenor was covered by great waves and sank into the abyss, killing its inhabitants, including the body of Sauron—which robbed him of his ability to assume fair and charming forms ever again.

The Changing of the World

- SA 3319: Ilúvatar broke and changed the world, changing Arda's shape from flat to round and taking Aman and Tol Eressëa from the Circles of the World forever, so that mortal sailors would not reach the Undying Lands again. - After the destruction, Aman and Tol Eressëa were removed from Arda so that Men could not reach them. Only the Elves could still go there by the Straight Road and in ships capable of passing out of the Spheres of the earth. The Straight Road was the route that left Middle-earth's curvature through sky and space to the ethereal land of Aman. Ships following this path "never became hull-down but dwindled only by distance until it vanished in the twilight: it followed the straight road to the true West and not the bent road of the earth's surface."

The Survivors and New Kingdoms

- SA 3319: In the great storm that came with the drowning of Númenor, the nine ships of the Exiles were borne to the east and scattered. Elendil was cast up in the land of Lindon, passed up the River Lhûn, and founded the realm of Arnor. Isildur and Anárion were carried to the south. Arriving at the mouths of the Anduin, they ascended the great river and founded the realm of Gondor. - Elendil's four ships were separated from those of his sons and arrived in Eriador. He was welcomed by the Elven-king Gil-galad. - SA 3320: Elendil founded the Kingdom of Arnor, building the city of Annúminas as his capital. The five ships carrying Elendil's sons landed further south, where Anárion founded the city of Minas Anor in Anórien, and Isildur founded Minas Ithil in Ithilien. They ruled the new realm of Gondor jointly as its Kings from their capital city of Osgiliath. Elendil became the first King of both realms and held the title of first High King of the Dúnedain. - Following the Akallabêth, the surviving Elendili who established the kingdoms of Arnor and Gondor shunned Adûnaic in favour of Sindarin due to the associations of the former with the tyrannical Ar-Pharazôn and his followers the King's Men. - Sauron's spirit returned to Mordor. In the Last Alliance of Men and Elves, Elendil and Gil-galad laid siege to Sauron's fortress of Barad-dûr, and fought him hand-to-hand for the One Ring. Both Elendil and Gil-galad were killed, and Elendil's son Isildur took the Ring for himself.

Significant Characters

Elros Tar-Minyatur

The half-elven son of Eärendil and twin brother of Elrond. He chose mortality and became the first King of Númenor (SA 32-442), founding the royal line. His choice to become mortal—and yet receive extended life spanning centuries—established the blessed but still mortal nature of the Númenórean people.

Tar-Atanamir the Great (the Unwilling)

Thirteenth King of Númenor (SA 2029-2221). The pivotal figure in Númenor's decline. He was the first King to openly question the Ban of the Valar, claiming that the "life of the Eldar was his by right." He was the first to refuse to give up his life and the Sceptre to his heir, clinging to power into old age and senility. This began a new tradition where every successor did not relinquish his reign until death. The King and his men responded that they envied the deathless because a "blind trust" is required of them, and that they do not want to be parted from the earth. After his death, the lifespans of the House of Elros began to wane—a spiritual consequence of their rebellion.

Tar-Palantir (Inziladûn)

The last Faithful King of Númenor (SA 3175-3255). His mother Inzilbêth was secretly a member of the Faithful and taught her son to be an Elf-friend despite his father Ar-Gimilzôr being a bitter opponent of the Valar. When he became king, he took a Quenya name and sought to repent of his predecessors' actions. He gave tendance to the White Tree and went to worship on Meneltarma. However, despite his genuine efforts, his repentance was "too little, too late" for his kingdom. The Valar did not respond, and the Elves never returned. Tar-Palantir became filled with sorrow over the continuing rebellion of his people and spent his time at the tower in the west of the isle, looking westward with nostalgia, maybe hoping to see a ship—but even the sight of it was withheld from him. His brother Gimilkhâd opposed him both openly and in secret, leading the King's Men.

Ar-Pharazôn the Golden (Tar-Calion)

The twenty-fifth and last King of Númenor (SA 3255-3319). Of all the rulers of Númenor, he wielded the most power, but used it most unwisely. He was a man of great will, strength, and stature, but pride was his central character flaw. He seized power from his cousin Míriel (Tar-Palantir's rightful heir), forcing her to marry him. When he heard that Sauron was expanding his power, "his heart was filled with the desire of power unbounded and the sole dominion of his will." His fear of death and aging made him vulnerable to Sauron's manipulation. When he first gazed upon Taniquetil, "shining white as snow yet as terrible as the might and supremacy of Eru Ilúvatar himself, even he, Ar-Pharazôn, the mighty King of Men and of the seas, became afraid and nearly turned back. Despite all that he saw, neither fear nor wisdom would prevail, for pride was the master." He was remembered by the surviving Númenórean lineage with a sort of grudging respect—despite his errors, he was the first and last Man capable of beating and humiliating Sauron by himself (through sheer military might).

Sauron

The Dark Lord, lieutenant of Morgoth. After Morgoth's defeat, Sauron expanded his power in Middle-earth during the Second Age. When Ar-Pharazôn invaded with overwhelming force, Sauron chose cunning over battle—he changed into his fair form and humbled himself, allowing himself to be taken as a "prisoner" to Númenor. This was actually his greatest victory. Within three years he became Ar-Pharazôn's primary councillor. He corrupted the Númenóreans by feeding their fear of death and envy of immortality, establishing himself as High Priest of Morgoth and instituting human sacrifice. His body was destroyed in Númenor's fall, and "he could never again appear fair to the eyes of Men"—each bodily reformation used up spiritual energy, and he no longer had the strength of will to self-incarnate in beautiful form. Tolkien described his Third Age form as "a man of more than human stature, but not gigantic, and as an image of malice and hatred made visible."

Amandil

Lord of Andúnië, father of Elendil, leader of the Faithful. A close friend to Ar-Pharazôn in their youth, but they grew apart as Ar-Pharazôn's pride increased. When he learned of the planned assault on Valinor, Amandil made the decision to sail west himself to warn the Valar and plead for mercy for the Númenóreans, saying "as for the Ban, I will suffer in myself the penalty, lest all my people should become guilty." He told Elendil to gather the Faithful and prepare to escape to Middle-earth. Amandil's fate is unknown—he was never heard from again. His sacrifice parallels Eärendil's voyage, and his decision saved the Faithful by ensuring they were ready to flee.

Elendil the Tall

Son of Amandil, father of Isildur and Anárion. He led the Faithful to safety with nine ships, bearing a seedling of Nimloth and the Seven Seeing-stones (palantíri). His proclamation upon landing—"Out of the Great Sea to Middle-earth I am come. In this place will I abide, and my heirs, unto the ending of the world"—became a traditional oath repeated by Aragorn when taking the crown. Elendil founded Arnor in the north and became the first High King of the Dúnedain. He died in the Last Alliance fighting Sauron hand-to-hand alongside Gil-galad. Tolkien called Elendil a "Noachian figure," an echo of the biblical Noah.

Isildur

Son of Elendil. His heroic deed was stealing a fruit from Nimloth before it was burned, suffering many wounds and nearly dying in the attempt. When the first leaf of the new tree opened in spring, Isildur was healed. He founded Minas Ithil and ruled Gondor jointly with his brother. He cut the One Ring from Sauron's hand after the Last Alliance but failed to destroy it—keeping it for himself, which led to his death.

Anárion

Son of Elendil, brother of Isildur. He founded Minas Anor and ruled Gondor jointly with Isildur. The lineage of Gondor's kings descends through him.

Geographic Locations

Númenor (Elenna, Anadûnê, Westernesse)

A large star-shaped island in the western sea, halfway between Middle-earth and Aman. Called Elenna ("starwards") because the Edain were guided there by the Star of Eärendil. The Valar raised it from the sea as a gift for the Edain after the War of Wrath. It was the closest of mortal lands to the Blessed Realm. At its peak, Númenor was the greatest civilization of Men, with advanced shipbuilding, crafts, wisdom, and culture. The island was completely destroyed and sunk beneath the waves in SA 3319.

Meneltarma - The Pillar of Heaven

The sacred mountain at the heart of Númenor, standing three thousand feet above the surrounding plain. Its name means "Pillar of Heaven" in Quenya (from menel "the heavens, firmament, sky" + tarma "pillar"). Also called the Holy Mountain (Êrurud) and the Hallowed Mountain. The summit was home to the Hallow of Eru Ilúvatar, the most sacred site of the Númenóreans, where no walls, temples, or idols stood—only the open sky. No building, no raised altar, not even a pile of undressed stones, ever stood there. No tool or weapon had ever been borne there. No one might speak any word save the King only. Only the King was allowed to utter prayers and thanksgivings to Eru Ilúvatar during the feasts of Erukyermë, Erulaitalë and Eruhantalë. Birds and animals did not approach the site, except the Eagles of Manwë who were seen circling over the summit—they were regarded as sacred guardians called "the Witnesses of Manwë." Tolkien equated the Númenórean practice of having just one place of worship at the summit with that of the Jews at their single Temple in Jerusalem. After the destruction of Númenor, some amongst the Exiles believed that the Hallow of Eru upon the summit remained as an isle in the sea, from which one could catch a glimpse of the unreachable Aman.

Armenelos

The capital city of Númenor, where the King's Court was located and where Nimloth, the White Tree, grew. Later, Sauron's Temple to Morgoth was built here on a hill in the middle of the city.

Andúnië

A city and region in the west of Númenor, home to the Lords of Andúnië who led the Faithful. The name means "sunset" in Quenya. This was where the Faithful maintained their strongest presence and their ancient friendship with the Elves.

Rómenna

A port city on the east coast of Númenor where Ar-Gimilzôr forcefully moved the Faithful so he could keep an eye on them. This is where Elendil gathered the nine ships of the Faithful before the Downfall.

The Temple to Morgoth

A massive circular structure built in Armenelos at Sauron's command. Its walls were 500 feet high and 50 feet thick, constructed of marble, gold, glass, and steel. Beneath it were prisons and chambers of torture. A mighty silver dome (later blackened by smoke) roofed it. Inside was an altar of fire where human sacrifices were burned, including many of the Faithful.

Aman (The Undying Lands, The Blessed Realm)

The continent in the far west where Valinor lay, home of the Valar and many Elves. After the Changing of the World, it was removed "from the Circles of the World" and could only be reached by the Straight Road, which the Elves alone could find. The name "Undying Lands" refers to its immortal inhabitants, not any property of the land itself.

Tol Eressëa (The Lonely Isle)

An island off the coast of Aman, home to many Elves. The white swan ships from Tol Eressëa brought gifts to Númenor, including the sapling that became Nimloth. Ar-Pharazôn's fleet surrounded it completely on their way to assault Valinor.

Pelargir

Haven founded by the Faithful in SA 2350 on the shores of Middle-earth to escape persecution. It later became an important city of Gondor.

Umbar

Haven founded by the King's Men on the shores of Middle-earth. After the Downfall, it became a stronghold of those Númenóreans who had not been Faithful.

Arnor

The northern kingdom in exile, founded by Elendil in Eriador in SA 3320, with its capital at Annúminas.

Gondor

The southern kingdom in exile, founded by Isildur and Anárion in SA 3320, with cities including Osgiliath (the capital), Minas Anor (later Minas Tirith), and Minas Ithil (later Minas Morgul).

Themes & Symbolism

Mortality vs. Immortality: The Central Paradox

The Gift of Ilúvatar is death—the inheritance of the Younger Children, which allows them to go beyond the confines of Arda. As Tolkien explained: "The Doom (or the Gift) of Men is mortality, freedom from the circles of the world." Men are not bound to the Circles of the World as Elves are—their spirits truly leave the physical world and do not return, while Elves do not die until the world dies.

The corruption of this Gift is key: "Like all other aspects of life in Arda, the Gift of Men became darkened by Morgoth's shadow. Men came to view death with great dread, and it became a Doom to them rather than a Gift." Morgoth "confounded it with darkness, and brought forth evil out of good, and fear out of hope." To dishearten Men, Morgoth proclaimed that "beyond the Circles of the World there is Nothing."

The Númenóreans' tragedy is that despite their extended lifespans (a blessing), they came to envy Elvish "immortality" and feared death more than ordinary Men. The closer they came to the Blessed Realm geographically, the more they resented their mortality. This fear reached its peak when Ar-Pharazôn, facing his own aging and death, was convinced by Sauron that the Undying Lands held the key to immortality—a fundamental lie, since the land itself doesn't confer immortality.

Those Men with the greatest understanding treated death as the Gift it was originally intended to be—the earlier Kings of Númenor gladly gave themselves up to it. Aragorn also accepted the Gift at the natural end of his life, saying "In sorrow we must go, but not in despair."

Pride and Hubris: The Aristotelian Hamartia

The Fall of Númenor represents classical Greek hubris—excessive pride leading to divine punishment. Atlantis, Tolkien's inspiration, was "an allegory on the hubris of nations" in Plato's works. The Númenóreans and Atlanteans both "suffered from what the ancient Greeks would have called hubris, meaning insolence, lack of restraint, as well as considering oneself equal to or greater than the gods."

Ar-Pharazôn embodies this perfectly. When he heard of Sauron's expansion, his pride led him to decide "without counsel of the Valar, or the aid of any wisdom but his own" to claim the title of King of Men, for he deemed "that no king could ever arise so mighty as to vie with the Heir of Eärendil." The Aristotelian term for his assault on Valinor is hamartia—the grave error or misjudgment by which a person dooms himself.

Even when Ar-Pharazôn gazed upon Taniquetil's terrifying majesty, "neither fear nor wisdom would prevail, for pride was the master."

The Ban: Prohibition as Catalyst for Fall

Tolkien stated that the Downfall of Númenor was "a second fall of man" with "its central theme .. (inevitably, I think, in a story of Men) a Ban, or Prohibition." This parallels the prohibition in Eden—a divine limit placed not as cruelty but as boundary-setting for mortal flourishing.

From the first, the Valar placed the Ban: the Númenóreans must never sail to Eressëa, nor westward out of sight of their own land. In all other directions they could go as they would. The prohibition was both geographical and spiritual—it marked the boundary between mortal and immortal realms.

Over time the Númenóreans came to resent the Ban and rebel against the Valar's authority, begrudging their mortality and seeking the everlasting life that they believed was denied them. This resentment was the crack through which Sauron could enter.

The Corruption From Within: Sauron's Greatest Victory

Sauron's physical defeat by Ar-Pharazôn became his spiritual victory. He perceived he could not defeat the Númenóreans through strength of arms, so he "changed into his fair form and humbled himself"—allowing himself to be taken as a prisoner was actually his greatest triumph.

Within three years, Sauron became Ar-Pharazôn's primary councillor. He didn't conquer Númenor—he corrupted it. He fed the existing fear of death, the existing envy, the existing pride. As one source notes: "Sauron made all this up and didn't even believe it himself. Tolkien mentions in 'Myths Transformed' that Sauron basically created this dark religion as a way to turn the Númenóreans from the Valar, and to make them easier to control."

The progression is chilling: first spiritual corruption (turning from Valar to Morgoth), then linguistic rebellion (banning Elvish languages), then physical persecution (the Faithful accused of "treason"), then human sacrifice (burning people alive on the altar), and finally the assault on heaven itself.

The Atlantis Myth Reborn

Tolkien admitted that his "Atlantis dream" was the most deeply seated in his imagination of all "the mythical or 'archetypal' images." He wrote: "I have what some might call an Atlantis complex... the terrible recurrent dream (beginning with memory) of the Great Wave, towering up, and coming in ineluctably over the trees and green fields. (I bequeathed it to Faramir.)"

Scholars note that Tolkien "combined [the Atlantis myth] with Judeo-Christian myth." Tolkien's history of the Downfall remained faithful to Plato's story of Atlantis, exhibiting significant influences from Timaeus and Critias. Similarly to how Plato invented a tradition through which the story was allegedly handed down from Egyptian priests to Solon, Tolkien created one in the form of Ælfwine who met the Elves.

The Atlantis parallel carries the theme of a great civilization undone by its own pride—a cautionary tale about what happens when a blessed people turn from wisdom to power.

Divine Justice and the Limits of Power

When Ar-Pharazôn landed on Aman, the Valar faced a dilemma: they feared the Númenorean army could wreak havoc, but "they were forbidden from killing or otherwise using force against Men." This is a crucial theological point—the Valar's power has limits placed by Eru Ilúvatar himself. They cannot simply destroy Men, even rebel Men.

So Manwë "called upon Ilúvatar, and for that time the Valar laid down their government of Arda." This is the only moment in the legendarium where the Valar completely relinquish their authority and Ilúvatar directly intervenes in the physical world (aside from the creation).

The punishment fits the crime: they sought to escape death by sailing west, so their entire island is drowned. They sought the Undying Lands, so the world is bent and those lands are removed forever. They rejected the Gift of mortality, so they receive death en masse.

Eucatastrophe and Providence: The Faithful's Salvation

Tolkien's concept of eucatastrophe—a sudden turn from disaster to unexpected victory through grace—applies to the survival of the Faithful. While Númenor is destroyed, Elendil and his followers escape "borne on the wings of a great storm." This is not mere luck but providence.

Amandil's sacrifice parallels Eärendil's voyage—both break the Ban for a higher purpose. Though Amandil is never heard from again, his warning to Elendil saves the remnant. The Faithful were ready, ships prepared, when catastrophe struck.

Joseph Pearce notes that "luck" in Middle-earth is "a euphemism for a supernatural dimension to the unfolding of events," a "transcendent Providence." The survival of the Faithful—bearing the White Tree seedling and the palantíri—ensures that Númenórean culture, wisdom, and bloodlines continue. This remnant becomes crucial for the Third Age. Without their survival, there would be no Gondor, no Aragorn, no resistance to Sauron in the War of the Ring.

Linguistic Rebellion as Spiritual Rebellion

The shift from Quenya to Adûnaic names tracks the spiritual decline of Númenor. When Ar-Adûnakhôr forbade the speaking of Elven tongues, and Ar-Gimilzôr outlawed Elvish entirely, these were not merely political acts but spiritual ones. Language connects to identity, to friendship, to loyalty.

The Faithful maintained Elvish languages because they maintained their friendship with Elves and their loyalty to the Valar. The King's Men rejected Elvish because they rejected the values it represented. After the Downfall, the surviving Faithful shunned Adûnaic in favor of Sindarin "due to the associations of the former with the tyrannical Ar-Pharazôn and his followers the King's Men."

Language becomes both a marker of allegiance and a tool of tyranny. Sauron understands this—controlling language is controlling thought.

The White Tree: Symbol of Hope and Renewal

Nimloth, descended from Telperion (one of the Two Trees of Valinor), represents the unbroken connection between Númenor and the Blessed Realm. Its lineage traces back to the primordial days of the Valar and the light of the Trees.

When Nimloth is cut down and burned on Morgoth's altar, it symbolizes the severing of that connection—the final rejection of the Valar. But Isildur's rescue of a fruit, at great personal cost (he nearly died), ensures continuity. When the first leaf opens and Isildur is healed, it's a eucatastrophic moment—death and resurrection in miniature.

As one scholar writes: "The White Tree has stood as the beacon and symbol of hope for the Dunedain throughout their kingdoms. The White Tree, in its growing and withering, is the symbol of renewal for the Dunedain." The tree's survival through Gondor's history to Aragorn's reign represents the fulfillment of the promise that began in Númenor—the true king returns, and with him, the tree blooms again.

The Changing of the World: Cosmological Catastrophe

The transformation from flat world to round world is unprecedented in mythology. Tolkien writes that "Ilúvatar broke and changed the world, changing Arda's shape from flat to round and taking Aman and Tol Eressëa from the Circles of the World forever."

After this, only the Elves can find the Straight Road—the path that "followed the straight road to the true West and not the bent road of the earth's surface." Ships on this path "never became hull-down but dwindled only by distance until it vanished in the twilight." As it vanished "it left the physical world. There was no return."

This cosmological change means that mortals can never again physically reach the Blessed Realm. The separation is now built into the structure of reality itself. It's the ultimate consequence of the Númenóreans' assault—they wanted to reach Aman, so Aman is removed from their world entirely.

Scholarly Interpretations & Theories

Tolkien's Catholic Theology of Death and Punishment

Multiple scholars emphasize the Catholic dimension of the story. Tolkien, "a devout Roman Catholic, stated that The Downfall of Númenor (Akallabêth) was effectively a second fall of man." Commentators note "that the destruction of Númenor echoes the Biblical stories of the fall of man and the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, and John Milton's Paradise Lost."

One scholar writes: "It is no surprise that Tolkien, a faithful son of the Catholic Church, wove into his tale the desire to conquer death as a central thread in the story of the island of Númenor." Another: "Among the many instances of this theme, perhaps none is more significant than that of the island of Númenor" in representing "the Fall of Adam and Eve from Eden."

Tolkien's statement that "a divine 'punishment' is also a divine 'gift', if accepted, since its object is ultimate blessing" reveals his sacramental understanding—even catastrophe can serve redemptive purposes.

Nazi Parallels and Political Critique

Christopher Tolkien argued that his father likely found the fall of Númenor "at least in part an implicit critique of the racialism and nationalism of the Nazis," pointing to elements like "the withdrawal of the besotted and aging king from the public view, the unexplained disappearance of people unpopular with the 'government', informers, prisons, torture, secrecy, fear of the night; propaganda in the form of the 'rewriting of history'."

This reading sees the story as Tolkien's "profound meditations on the nature of human evil and pride: How does a civilization move from great cultural achievement to tyranny and final cataclysmic destruction?"

The progression from democratic to authoritarian to totalitarian—linguistic suppression, persecution of minorities, show trials, human sacrifice—mirrors 20th-century fascism.

Racial Memory and Personal Psychology

Tolkien's description of his "Atlantis complex" suggests he believed in some form of racial or inherited memory: "Possibly inherited, though my parents died too young for me to know such things about them, and too young to transfer such things by words. Inherited from me (I suppose) by one only of my children [Michael], though I did not know that about my son until recently, and he did not know it about me."

Scholars note: "The Atlantis myth had an obvious personal meaning to Tolkien. He considered it a possible racial memory descended down through his family. It also represented to him an embodiment of certain European longings."

This personal, almost archetypal connection to the Atlantis story gave the Númenor narrative emotional depth beyond mere allegory.

Israelite Worship Parallels

Tolkien explicitly "equated the Númenórean practice of having just one place of worship at the summit of Mount Meneltarma with that of the Jews at their single Temple in Jerusalem." The description in Unfinished Tales of Númenórean holidays and religious practices "drive home this personal relationship and display additional similarities between Dúnedain religious culture and the Israelite covenantal faith."

This parallel positions the Faithful as analogous to the faithful remnant in Israelite history—those who maintain true worship despite national apostasy.

The Nature of Sauron's Defeat and Permanent Diminishment

Scholars have analyzed why Sauron permanently lost his fair form after Númenor's destruction. One writes: "The short answer is that he was unable to focus his will sufficiently to control his self-incarnated form with such precision after his first death." Tolkien's explanation in Letter 200 about spiritual energy being used up with each reformation provides the theological framework.

This is crucial: "Even after he returned to Middle-earth with the Ring in his possession, 'he could never again appear fair to the eyes of men'—thus he cannot appear in fair form even with the Ring." The corruption of Númenor cost Sauron something irreplaceable—his ability to deceive through beauty.

Mortality as Theme and Mystery

Scholars note Tolkien's own statement: "The real theme for me is (…) Death and Immortality: the mystery of the love of the world in the hearts of a race 'doomed' to leave and seemingly lose it; the anguish in the hearts in a race 'doomed' not to leave it, until its whole [world ends]."

One analysis: "Tolkien himself places death and immortality at the centre of his Legendarium." Another: "Tolkien viewed punishment and gift as interrelated: 'A divine "punishment" is also a divine "gift", if accepted, since its object is ultimate blessing.'"

The Númenor story becomes the dramatization of this central mystery—what does it mean to be mortal? Is death curse or gift? The Númenóreans had more life than any other Men, yet it made them fear death more, not less. The answer, Tolkien suggests, lies in acceptance rather than resistance.

Contradictions & Different Versions

The Two Traditions: Elvish and Mannish

Christopher Tolkien notes in Volume IX of The History of Middle-earth (Sauron Defeated) that his father was developing two traditions concerning Númenor's history: The Fall of Númenor (a more Elvish version) and The Drowning of Anadûnê (a "Mannish" form).

These different perspectives suggest that Tolkien was aware of the historiographical question: who tells the story matters. The Akallabêth as published is said to have been written by Elendil, a survivor—thus it's neither a neutral account nor an Elvish one, but a Númenórean Faithful perspective.

Flat Earth vs. Round Earth Cosmology

In Tolkien's latest writings published in later volumes of The History of Middle-earth, "Arda was a round world from its beginning, and the idea of a flat world was instead an invention of the Númenóreans. Thus, in this alternate account, the world would not need to be bent at the time of Númenor's downfall and Aman's removal from the physical world."

This represents a significant cosmological shift in Tolkien's thinking—from an actual physical transformation to a revelation of truth (the world was always round, but the Númenóreans had convinced themselves otherwise).

The Reliability of the Akallabêth

Since the Akallabêth is presented as Elendil's account written after the Downfall, questions arise about its reliability as a primary source. Elendil was not present for most of the events in Armenelos, the Temple, or Ar-Pharazôn's court. The account likely combines: - Direct experience (the escape, the storm, the founding of the kingdoms) - Reports from other survivors - Elvish accounts and traditions - Possibly divine revelation or inspired knowledge

This complexity adds depth—the story is not omniscient narration but a reconstruction by a traumatized survivor trying to make sense of his civilization's destruction.

Cultural & Linguistic Context

Etymology of Key Terms

Númenor: From Quenya, meaning "West-land" or "Westernesse" Elenna: "Starwards" - referring to being guided by the Star of Eärendil Anadûnê: The Adûnaic name for the island, meaning "Westernesse" Akallabêth: Means "The Downfall" in Adûnaic Meneltarma: "Pillar of Heaven" (Quenya: menel "heavens" + tarma "pillar") Andúnië: "Sunset" in Quenya Ar-: Adûnaic royal prefix meaning "King" Tar-: Quenya royal prefix meaning "High" or "Noble"

The shift from Tar- to Ar- in royal names tracks the spiritual decline: when kings start taking Adûnaic rather than Quenya names, it signals their rejection of Elvish friendship and Valar loyalty.

Adûnaic: The Language of Rebellion

Adûnaic was the native language of the Númenóreans, distinct from Elvish languages. While initially considered less prestigious than Quenya or Sindarin, "the Númenorean resentment of the Elves in the late Second Age led to a movement to wipe out the speaking of Quenya or Sindarin anywhere in the island nation."

The linguistic politics became explicit under Ar-Adûnakhôr (who took his name in Adûnaic and forbade Elvish in his presence) and Ar-Gimilzôr (who outlawed Elvish entirely). Tar-Palantir briefly reversed this, taking a Quenya name and repealing the ban.

After the Downfall, the Faithful rejected Adûnaic: "According to PM:315, the Adûnaic tongue was not tended in Middle-earth: The surviving Faithful of Númenor spoke Sindarin themselves and had no great love of Adûnaic, this being the language of the rebel Kings that had tried to suppress the Elvish tongues."

Real-World Inspirations: Plato, Atlantis, and Biblical Echoes

Tolkien's Númenor "combined [the Atlantis myth] with Judeo-Christian myth." His history "remained faithful to Plato's story of Atlantis, and exhibits significant influences from Timaeus and Critias."

Biblical parallels include: - The Ban echoing Eden's prohibition - The Downfall echoing Noah's Flood and Sodom's destruction - The remnant echoing Noah's family and Lot's escape - Human sacrifice echoing Molech worship in the Valley of Hinnom - Divine intervention echoing the Tower of Babel

Christopher Tolkien's comparison to Nazi Germany adds a 20th-century political dimension, making Númenor a timeless cautionary tale about authoritarianism.

Monotheism and Númenórean Religion

Unlike most of Middle-earth, Númenórean religion was explicitly monotheistic—worship of Eru Ilúvatar alone. "The Númenóreans were monotheists with only one physical centre of 'worship': the summit of the mountain Meneltarma—but it had no building and no temple, as all such things had evil associations."

This is unique in Middle-earth. Even the Elves have closer relationships with the Valar (who are not gods but angelic powers) than with Eru directly. The Númenóreans' pure monotheism—later corrupted into Morgoth worship—parallels Israelite history more than classical mythology.

The contrast is stark: on Meneltarma, no building, no altar, no word except the King's prayer in silence; in Sauron's Temple, a massive structure of gold and marble, filled with smoke and screams, where people are burned alive. The corruption is complete.

Questions & Mysteries

What happened to Amandil?

Amandil sailed west to warn the Valar and plead for the Númenóreans, breaking the Ban as Eärendil had done. But unlike Eärendil, he was never heard from again. Did he reach Aman? Was he turned back? Did he die at sea? Did the Valar accept his sacrifice but deny him Eärendil's fate?

The silence suggests his sacrifice was accepted (the Valar were prepared for Ar-Pharazôn's assault, suggesting they had warning) but that he paid the price for breaking the Ban. His fate remains deliberately ambiguous—a noble mystery.

Did Tar-Palantir's repentance accomplish anything?

Tar-Palantir genuinely tried to reform Númenor, taking a Quenya name, giving tendance to the White Tree, worshipping on Meneltarma. Yet "the Valar did not respond to Tar-Palantir's repentance because of the insolence of the Kings before him, and because the greater part of the Númenóreans were still hostile to the Lords of the West."

Was his repentance worthless? Or did it preserve the Faithful remnant, keeping hope alive long enough for Elendil to prepare? His daughter Míriel might have continued his reforms—but Ar-Pharazôn seized power. The question remains: can one good king save a corrupted nation, or does corruption have its own momentum?

Why did the Valar accept Eärendil but not the Númenóreans?

Both Eärendil and Ar-Pharazôn sailed to Aman uninvited. Eärendil was accepted, blessed, and transformed into a star. Ar-Pharazôn was buried under falling hills. What's the difference?

Intention matters: Eärendil came in humility to plead for both Elves and Men against Morgoth. Ar-Pharazôn came in pride to seize immortality for himself. Eärendil came as a suppliant; Ar-Pharazôn came as a conqueror. This suggests the Ban was never absolute but dependent on the heart's motive.

Could Sauron have actually been killed in Númenor's fall?

Sauron's body was destroyed, but his spirit survived and returned to Mordor. Maiar cannot be permanently killed in the normal sense—they are immortal spirits. But the destruction did permanent damage, costing him his fair form forever. If the One Ring had been in Númenor when it sank, would Sauron have been destroyed completely? The Ring was in Mordor, so he could return to it. But it raises the question: was Sauron's survival luck, or did he plan for this possibility?

Is the Straight Road a physical path or a spiritual one?

After the world was made round, the Elves could still find the Straight Road to Aman, and a few mortals were permitted to take it (Bilbo, Frodo, Sam, Gimli). Ships on this path "left the physical world. There was no return."

Is this a literal path through space that somehow bypasses the curvature of the earth? Or is it a spiritual transition, where the ship and its passengers pass into a different mode of existence? Tolkien seems to suggest both—it's physical enough that you can see the ship dwindle into the distance, but it's spiritual enough that it leaves "the Circles of the World."

What became of Ar-Pharazôn and his men?

They were "buried under falling hills" and would "remain in the Caves of the Forgotten until the Last Battle." This suggests a kind of suspended judgment—they're not dead but entombed, waiting for a final reckoning. What will happen at the Last Battle? Will they fight for Morgoth (whom they worshipped) or will they have a chance at redemption? Tolkien leaves this deliberately unclear, but the image is haunting—the greatest army of Men, frozen in their moment of ultimate hubris, waiting in darkness for the end of all things.

Compelling Quotes for Narration

1. "But Sauron was not of mortal flesh, and though he was robbed now of that shape in which he had wrought so great an evil, so that he could never again appear fair to the eyes of Men, yet his spirit arose out of the deep and passed as a shadow and a black wind over the sea, and came back to Middle-earth and to Mordor that was his home." - The Silmarillion, Akallabêth

2. "Et Eärello Endorenna utúlien. Sinome maruvan ar Hildinyar tenn' Ambar-metta!" ("Out of the Great Sea to Middle-earth I am come. In this place will I abide, and my heirs, unto the ending of the world.") - Elendil's Proclamation, Unfinished Tales

3. "The Doom (or the Gift) of Men is mortality, freedom from the circles of the world." - Tolkien, Letter to Milton Waldman

4. "In his pride he deemed that no king could ever arise so mighty as to vie with the Heir of Eärendil." - On Ar-Pharazôn, The Peoples of Middle-earth

5. "The Lords of the West have plotted against us. They strike first. The next blow shall be ours!" - Ar-Pharazôn's response to the eagle-shaped storm clouds

6. "As for the Ban, I will suffer in myself the penalty, lest all my people should become guilty." - Amandil before his voyage

7. "Shaped as it were an eagle, with pinions spread to the north and the south… and some of the eagles bore lightning beneath their wings, and thunder echoed between sea and cloud." - Description of the Valar's warning

8. "In sorrow we must go, but not in despair." - Aragorn's last words (echoing the acceptance of mortality the Númenóreans lost)

9. "The real theme for me is Death and Immortality: the mystery of the love of the world in the hearts of a race 'doomed' to leave and seemingly lose it; the anguish in the hearts in a race 'doomed' not to leave it, until its whole [world ends]." - Tolkien on his central theme

10. "But certainly Death is not an Enemy!" - Tolkien, letter to C. Ouboter

11. "For in his pride he deemed that no king could ever arise so mighty as to vie with the Heir of Eärendil." - Ar-Pharazôn's hubris

12. "Neither fear nor wisdom would prevail, for pride was the master." - Ar-Pharazôn facing Taniquetil

Visual Elements to Highlight

1. The Star of Eärendil guiding the ships to Númenor - The founding moment, the Edain following the light of hope across the sea to their new home

2. Meneltarma at sunrise - The sacred mountain, three thousand feet high, eagles circling its summit, the King ascending in silence to pray

3. The White Tree (Nimloth) in the King's Court - Blooming white against the marble of Armenelos, symbol of the bond with the Blessed Realm

4. Númenórean ships at their height - Majestic vessels with white sails, the greatest mariners of the age, exploring the world

5. The Shadow falling - A visual transition showing the sun dimming over Númenor, metaphorical darkness creeping across the island

6. Isildur stealing the fruit - Night scene, Isildur wounded and bleeding, clutching a single fruit as guards pursue him

7. The Temple to Morgoth - The massive circular structure with its silver dome (later blackened), 500 feet high, dominating Armenelos, smoke rising from within

8. The altar of fire with human sacrifices - Dark and horrifying, flames consuming the innocent, Sauron presiding as high priest

9. The eagle-shaped storm clouds - Massive formations bearing lightning, the Valar's warning ignored

10. Sauron standing atop the Temple dome - Lightning striking him harmlessly, the King's Men believing him a god

11. The Great Armament - The fleet so vast it looks like an archipelago of islands, surrounding Tol Eressëa on the way to Valinor

12. Ar-Pharazôn landing on the shores of Aman - The silent shores, Taniquetil in the distance, the King's moment of hesitation before pride wins

13. The nine ships of the Faithful fleeing - Elendil's vessels with their precious cargo (the White Tree seedling, the palantíri), escaping as the storm rises

14. The chasm opening - The earth splitting, the waters pouring into the abyss, the fleet being swallowed

15. The great wave - Tolkien's Atlantis dream realized: the Great Wave towering up, coming in ineluctably over the trees and green fields of Númenor

16. Númenor sinking beneath the waves - The island-star disappearing into the sea, Armenelos, Meneltarma, all vanishing

17. The world bending - Cosmic-scale transformation, the flat world becoming round, Aman being lifted away from the Circles of the World

18. The Straight Road - A ship sailing into the twilight, becoming smaller but never hull-down, following a path through the sky that doesn't curve

19. Elendil's landing in Middle-earth - Storm-tossed and weary, the survivors reaching the shores of Lindon, beginning again

20. The White Tree planted in Gondor - Continuity and hope, the seedling Isildur rescued now growing in Minas Anor, the line preserved

Discrete Analytical Themes

After gathering all research, here are 6 non-overlapping conceptual frameworks that will prevent script redundancy by pre-organizing concepts distinctly:

Theme 1: The Paradox of Extended Life Breeding Fear of Death

Core idea: The Númenóreans' blessing of extended lifespan made them fear death more, not less, revealing that mortality's sting lies in perspective not duration. Evidence: - Númenóreans lived 200-300+ years vs. ordinary Men's ~70 years, yet became more obsessed with death - Tar-Atanamir was first to refuse to give up life, clinging to power into senility (SA 2029-2221) - "In this time, the Númenóreans became obsessed with recalling or prolonging life; but they only achieved the ability to preserve dead bodies" - Tolkien: "The fear of death reached its peak in the later years of the isle of Númenor, where even the long life given to the Númenóreans was not enough to satisfy them" - Contrast with earlier Kings who "gladly gave themselves up" to death and Aragorn who achieved voluntary death "in estel" (hope) Distinction: This is about the PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECT of the blessing itself, not about Sauron's manipulation or divine punishment—how privilege can breed discontent.

Theme 2: Proximity to Heaven as Spiritual Poison

Core idea: Being geographically closer to the Blessed Realm intensified the Númenóreans' resentment rather than their gratitude, making forbidden fruit more tempting. Evidence: - Númenor was "the closest of mortal lands to the Blessed Realm" - halfway between Middle-earth and Aman - They could see the light of Eressëa from their western shores (under certain conditions) - Tar-Palantir spent his time "at the tower in the west of the isle, looking to the West with nostalgia, maybe hoping to see a ship from there. But even the sight of it was withheld from him" - The Ban specifically prohibited sailing "westward out of sight of their own land" - the very proximity that blessed them also tempted them - Middle-earth Men never attempted to reach Valinor; only the Númenóreans, who were closest, became obsessed with it Distinction: This is about GEOGRAPHICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL PROXIMITY creating temptation, not the nature of the Ban itself or the Fall's mechanics.

Theme 3: Corruption From Within: Sauron's Reversal Strategy

Core idea: Sauron's defeat became his victory by transforming military conquest into spiritual surrender, weaponizing the Númenóreans' existing flaws. Evidence: - "Since he perceived he could not defeat the Númenóreans through strength of arms, Sauron changed into his fair form and humbled himself" (SA 3261) - Allowed himself to be taken as "prisoner," which "actually furthered his plans" - Within 3 years became Ar-Pharazôn's primary councillor (SA 3265) - "Sauron made all this up and didn't even believe it himself" - the Morgoth worship was manipulation tool - He fed existing fears and pride: "Sauron flattered the king and fed upon his fear of death" - The progression: spiritual corruption → linguistic rebellion → persecution → human sacrifice → assault on heaven - Destroyed in the Downfall but it cost him permanently: "he could never again appear fair to the eyes of Men" Distinction: This is about SAURON'S SPECIFIC STRATEGY and methods, not about Númenórean psychology or the nature of the Fall itself.

Theme 4: The Ban as Boundary-Setting Love, Not Arbitrary Restriction

Core idea: The prohibition was protective wisdom (mortals in Aman gain nothing), not divine jealousy—but explaining this undermined rather than enforced obedience. Evidence: - Tolkien: Downfall of Númenor was "a second fall of man" with "its central theme .. a Ban, or Prohibition" - The Ban's purpose: prevent seeking immortality through geography, "since a mortal in Aman remains mortal" - "The name 'the Undying Lands' does not mean that the land itself causes mortals to live forever" - it's a naming confusion - Emissaries of the Valar came during Tar-Atanamir's reign explaining death was not punishment, "but the people of Númenor did not heed their words" - The lie Sauron sold: "the Undying Lands held the key to the immortality of the Elves" - fundamentally false - Parallel to Eden: prohibition as gift of boundaries, not cruelty Distinction: This is about the NATURE AND PURPOSE OF THE BAN itself, not the Númenóreans' response to it or Sauron's exploitation of it.

Theme 5: Two-Stage Catastrophe: Civilizational Collapse Before Physical Destruction

Core idea: Númenor died morally and culturally long before it sank physically—the drowning was merely the conclusion of an already-complete fall. Evidence: - Shadow fell SA 1800, over 1,500 years before the Downfall (SA 3319) - Linguistic rebellion: Ar-Adûnakhôr banned Elvish (SA 2899), 420 years before the end - Tar-Palantir's reforms (SA 3175-3255) came "too little, too late" - only 64 years before destruction - Christopher Tolkien's Nazi parallel: "withdrawal of the besotted aging king, unexplained disappearances, informers, prisons, torture, secrecy, fear, propaganda in the form of 'rewriting of history'" - Human sacrifice began around SA 3300 - the moral nadir reached before the physical end - The Faithful had already founded Pelargir (SA 2350) and were planning exodus - treating Númenor as already lost Distinction: This is about the TIMELINE AND PROCESS OF DECLINE over centuries, not any single cause or the final catastrophe.

Theme 6: Eucatastrophe and the Mathematics of Remnant Survival

Core idea: The preservation of the Faithful with specific artifacts (White Tree, palantíri, Elendil's line) reveals providential selectivity—grace saves not the nation but the seed. Evidence: - Nine ships vs. the Great Armament (thousands of ships) - proportionally tiny survival - Specific cargo: "a seedling of Nimloth, and the Seven Seeing-stones (gifts of the Eldar to their House)" - Isildur's near-death to save the fruit - individual sacrifice preserving the symbol - Amandil's unknown fate vs. Elendil's survival - the father's sacrifice enables the son's escape - "Borne on the wings of a great storm" - the same catastrophe that destroyed Númenor scattered the Faithful to safety - The nine ships separated: 4 to Arnor (Elendil), 5 to Gondor (Isildur/Anárion) - providential distribution - Result: Númenórean culture/bloodlines/artifacts preserved precisely enough to matter in Third Age - Tolkien: eucatastrophe is "a sudden turn in fortune from a seemingly unconquerable situation to an unforeseen victory, usually brought by grace rather than heroic effort" - Without this remnant: no Gondor, no Aragorn, no resistance to Sauron - the Third Age depends on Second Age grace Distinction: This is about HOW THE SURVIVAL WORKED mechanically and theologically, the specific elements preserved and why they mattered—not the Downfall itself.

What This Structure Prevents

Without these distinct themes, research becomes a mass of facts that encourages circular writing: - "Númenor's pride led to their fall" (too vague - which aspect of pride? when?) - "Sauron corrupted them" (overlaps with how the corruption worked and what made them vulnerable) - "The Downfall was divine punishment" (misses the two-stage collapse and the preservation of the remnant)

With these six themes, the script has clear building blocks: 1. The psychology of blessing-as-curse (how long life bred fear) 2. The geography of temptation (proximity to heaven) 3. Sauron's methodology (corruption from within) 4. The theological meaning of boundaries (the Ban as love) 5. The historical timeline (gradual vs. sudden collapse) 6. The mathematics of grace (who survived, what they carried, why it mattered)

Each theme approximately maps to one script section with minimal overlap, clear boundaries, and distinct analytical contributions.

Sources Consulted

Primary Tolkien Sources

- The Silmarillion (Akallabêth: The Downfall of Númenor) - Unfinished Tales of Númenor and Middle-earth (The Line of Elros: Kings of Númenor) - The Lord of the Rings (Appendices) - The History of Middle-earth Vol. IX: Sauron Defeated - The Letters of J.R.R. Tolkien (Letter to Milton Waldman, Letter 200, letter to C. Ouboter) - The Peoples of Middle-earth

Online Resources & Wikis

Scholarly Articles & Analysis

- Dallas Baptist University: Tolkien and the Atlantis Myth - Journal of Tolkien Research: The Influence of Atlantis and Egypt in Tolkien's Númenor - Medium: The Fall of Númenor: Prof. Tolkien's Reinvention of the Atlantis Myth - Council of Elrond: The Ineluctable Wave – a classical comparison of Númenor and Atlantis - The Remnant: Tolkien's Atlantis: What Can We Learn from the Ancient Story? - Jokien with Tolkien: A Doom or a Gift? - Mythlore: "The Gift of Death": Tolkien's Philosophy of Mortality - Eclectic Orthodoxy: The Gift of Ilúvatar and the Doom of Númenor - Tor.com: A Farewell to Kings: The Fall of Númenor - Tor.com: Mortal Men Doomed to Die: Death as a Gift Is Debatable in Middle-earth - Tea with Tolkien: Guide to The Silmarillion: Akallabêth - Tea with Tolkien: The Shadow Falls on Númenor - Silmarillion Writers' Guild: Character Biography: Ar-Pharazôn - Silmarillion Writers' Guild: Tar-Palantir - Middle-earth & J.R.R. Tolkien Blog: Why Was Post-Downfall Sauron Unable To Take A Fair Form Again? - FSSP: Eucatastrophe: Tolkien's Catholic View of Reality

Wikipedia Sources

- Wikipedia: Númenor - Wikipedia: Cosmology of Tolkien's legendarium - Wikipedia: Adûnaic - Wikipedia: Eucatastrophe

Fan Wikis & Discussion Forums

- The One Wiki to Rule Them All (multiple articles) - The Tolkien Forum discussions - Science Fiction & Fantasy Stack Exchange Q&As

Additional Notes

Connection to The Lord of the Rings

The Fall of Númenor is not ancient history in LOTR—it's living memory transmitted through: - Aragorn: 40th generation descendant of Elendil, speaks Elendil's proclamation when crowned - The White Tree: The tree blooming in Minas Tirith when Aragorn returns is descended from Isildur's rescued fruit - The palantíri: The seeing-stones that cause so much trouble (Saruman, Denethor, Pippin) are the seven stones the Faithful brought from Númenor - Gondor and Arnor: Both kingdoms are "Realms in Exile," forever shaped by being founded by refugees - The fear of fading: Denethor and the Stewards' despair about Gondor's decline echoes Númenórean fear of mortality and diminishment - Language: The choice to use Sindarin over Adûnaic was a moral choice about identity

The Third Age is living in the shadow of the Second Age catastrophe. Gondor at its height never matched Númenor. The survivors carried both the blessing (extended lifespans gradually fading, but still present in Aragorn's 210 years) and the curse (the trauma of having witnessed their civilization's self-destruction).

Tolkien's Atlantis Complex

Tolkien's personal statement about his recurring dream of the Great Wave is striking: "I have what some might call an Atlantis complex. Possibly inherited... I mean the terrible recurrent dream (beginning with memory) of the Great Wave, towering up, and coming in ineluctably over the trees and green fields. (I bequeathed it to Faramir.)"

This suggests the Númenor story had deep personal and psychological resonance for Tolkien—not just intellectual or theological. The image of the wave was visceral, perhaps archetypal. He "bequeathed it to Faramir," meaning this dream/vision appears in LOTR as Faramir's recurring nightmare.

The Mathematics of Decline

The timeline reveals a crucial pattern: - 1,800 years from founding (SA 32) to Shadow falling (SA 1800) - 1,519 years from Shadow falling to the Downfall (SA 3319) - 420 years from first linguistic rebellion (Ar-Adûnakhôr, SA 2899) to end - 144 years from Tar-Palantir's reforms (SA 3175) to end - 64 years from Tar-Palantir's death (SA 3255) to end - 58 years from Sauron's arrival (SA 3262) to end

The acceleration is notable. The first half of Númenor's history (1,800 years) is the golden age. The second half (1,519 years) is the decline. The final century is precipitous collapse. The final 58 years with Sauron present is freefall.

This suggests that while Sauron was the catalyst, he was exploiting centuries of accumulated resentment and pride. He didn't create the Shadow; he weaponized it.

The Faithful as Minority

Throughout the later period, the Faithful were the minority. When the split occurred (SA 2251), they were already the smaller faction. By Ar-Pharazôn's time, they were persecuted, restricted to Rómenna, and subject to arrest and execution.

Nine ships escaped. The Great Armament had thousands. Proportionally, the survival rate was tiny. This emphasizes that: 1. National repentance did not happen (Tar-Palantir tried and failed) 2. Judgment fell on the majority who chose rebellion 3. The remnant was preserved, but it was genuinely a remnant—not half the population but a fraction

This pattern (righteous remnant vs. rebellious majority) echoes throughout scripture and gives the story its tragic weight. Most Númenóreans chose poorly. Most died. The kingdoms in exile were founded by the few who chose rightly.

Sauron's Great Gambit: Victory and Cost

From Sauron's perspective, the Númenor operation was: - Strategic success: He destroyed the greatest threat to his power without lifting a weapon - Tactical failure: He lost his body and his fair form permanently - Net result: Mixed—Númenor gone, but Sauron permanently diminished

This raises the question: Did Sauron plan for Númenor's destruction, or did he expect Ar-Pharazôn to succeed in conquering Valinor? If he expected divine intervention, why risk his own destruction? If he didn't expect it, then he miscalculated catastrophically.

Most likely: Sauron sought to corrupt Númenor and bind it to his will, turning its power to his purposes. The assault on Valinor was Ar-Pharazôn's idea (fed by Sauron's lies about immortality). Sauron likely expected either: 1. The Valar to submit (unlikely but Sauron's pride might have believed it) 2. The Valar to destroy the fleet but leave Númenor intact (leaving Sauron in control)

He did not expect Ilúvatar to sink the entire island with him on it. His survival was luck or providence (depending on perspective), but he paid an irreplaceable price.

The irony: Sauron taught the Númenóreans to fear death and seek immortality, but he himself experienced a kind of death he couldn't escape—the death of his ability to deceive through beauty. He remained powerful but forever marked as monstrous. His greatest corruption cost him his greatest tool.

Sources: The Fall of Númenor Research

Primary Tolkien Sources (Most Useful)

Books Referenced

1. The Silmarillion (Akallabêth: The Downfall of Númenor) - Primary narrative source 2. Unfinished Tales of Númenor and Middle-earth (The Line of Elros: Kings of Númenor) - Genealogical and chronological detail 3. The Lord of the Rings (Appendices) - Chronological anchoring and connections to Third Age 4. The History of Middle-earth Vol. IX: Sauron Defeated - Alternative versions and textual history 5. The Letters of J.R.R. Tolkien - Philosophical commentary on mortality, themes 6. The Peoples of Middle-earth - Additional detail on Ar-Pharazôn and the royal line

Tolkien Gateway (Comprehensive Wiki - Most Heavily Used)

Key Articles (Page ranges: extensive use throughout)

- Akallabêth - Overall narrative and structure - Second Age - Historical context - Timeline/Second Age - Detailed chronology (SA 1-3441) - Downfall of Númenor - The catastrophe itself - Ar-Pharazôn - Character analysis and timeline - Tar-Atanamir - Beginning of the decline - Tar-Palantir - Failed reform attempts - Elendil - The Faithful's leader and survival - Isildur - Rescue of Nimloth's fruit - King's Men - The rebel faction - Gift of Ilúvatar - Theology of mortality - Meneltarma - Sacred mountain details - Great Armament - The invasion fleet - Straight Road - Post-catastrophe cosmology - Changing of the World - Flat to round world - Adûnaic - Linguistic rebellion - Nimloth (tree)) - White Tree symbolism - Temple - Temple to Morgoth details - Eucatastrophe - Tolkien's concept - Eagles - Divine warnings - Undying Lands - The Ban and its purpose - Bent World - Cosmological transformation - Circles of the World - Theological geography Assessment: Tolkien Gateway was the single most useful resource, providing comprehensive, well-cited information with direct quotes and cross-references.

Scholarly Articles & Academic Analysis (Very Useful)

1. Tolkien and the Atlantis Myth - Dallas Baptist University - Tolkien's personal Atlantis complex and recurring dreams - Connections to Plato's Timaeus and Critias - Most useful for: Understanding Tolkien's personal psychology and classical inspirations

2. The Influence of Atlantis and Egypt in Tolkien's Númenor - Journal of Tolkien Research - Scholarly comparison of Númenor to Atlantis - Analysis of Judeo-Christian elements - Most useful for: Academic interpretation and thematic analysis

3. "The Gift of Death": Tolkien's Philosophy of Mortality - Mythlore - Deep dive into Tolkien's theology of death - Gift vs. Doom interpretation - Most useful for: Understanding the central philosophical theme

4. The Fall of Númenor: Prof. Tolkien's Reinvention of the Atlantis Myth - Medium - Accessible analysis of Tolkien's reimagining - Comparative mythology - Most useful for: Narrative structure and mythic parallels

5. The Ineluctable Wave – Council of Elrond - Classical comparison of Númenor and Atlantis - Analysis of hubris and divine punishment - Most useful for: Greek philosophical parallels

Catholic/Christian Theological Analysis (Useful for Theme)

1. Eucatastrophe: Tolkien's Catholic View of Reality - FSSP - Catholic interpretation of Tolkien's theology - Providence and grace in the legendarium - Most useful for: Understanding eucatastrophe and divine intervention

2. The Gift of Ilúvatar and the Doom of Númenor - Eclectic Orthodoxy - Death as gift vs. punishment - Theological implications - Most useful for: Mortality theme analysis

3. Tolkien's Atlantis: What Can We Learn - The Remnant - Catholic perspective on hubris and fall - Moral lessons - Most useful for: Christian allegorical reading

Popular Analysis & Guides (Useful for Accessibility)

1. Guide to The Silmarillion: Akallabêth - Tea with Tolkien - Reader-friendly guide to the text - Clear summary of events - Most useful for: Accessible overview and structure

2. The Shadow Falls on Númenor - Tea with Tolkien - Detailed analysis of the decline period (SA 1800-3255) - Timeline of corruption - Most useful for: Understanding the gradual decline

3. A Farewell to Kings: The Fall of Númenor - Tor.com - Engaging narrative analysis - Character focus - Most useful for: Story-telling perspective

4. Mortal Men Doomed to Die: Death as a Gift - Tor.com - Critical examination of mortality theme - Challenges simple "gift" interpretation - Most useful for: Nuanced perspective on death theme

5. A Doom or a Gift? - Jokien with Tolkien - Analysis of mortality paradox - Númenórean psychology - Most useful for: Understanding fear of death despite blessing

Character-Specific Resources

1. Character Biography: Ar-Pharazôn - Silmarillion Writers' Guild - Detailed character analysis - Psychology of pride and fear - Most useful for: Understanding the last king's motivations

2. Tar-Palantir - Silmarillion Writers' Guild - The failed reformer - "Too little, too late" theme - Most useful for: Understanding attempted repentance

Specific Topic Deep Dives

1. Why Was Post-Downfall Sauron Unable To Take A Fair Form Again? - Middle-earth Blog - Analysis of Sauron's permanent loss - Spiritual energy and incarnation - Most useful for: Understanding consequences for Sauron

2. Temple for Morgoth - The One Wiki - Physical description of the temple - Human sacrifice details - Most useful for: Visualizing the corruption's nadir

3. Ban of the Valar - The One Wiki - Purpose and theology of the prohibition - Why it existed - Most useful for: Understanding the Ban's protective nature

Wikipedia Sources (General Reference)

1. Númenor - Wikipedia - General overview - Cross-references - Most useful for: Quick reference and verification

2. Cosmology of Tolkien's legendarium - Wikipedia - Flat vs. round world - Changing of the World mechanics - Most useful for: Understanding cosmological transformation

3. Adûnaic - Wikipedia - Language overview - Linguistic rebellion context - Most useful for: Language politics

4. Eucatastrophe - Wikipedia - Definition and Tolkien's concept - Literary analysis - Most useful for: Understanding the term

Additional Online Resources

1. The One Wiki to Rule Them All (LOTR Fandom) - Multiple articles cross-referenced - Secondary source for verification - Some unique details not in Tolkien Gateway

2. Science Fiction & Fantasy Stack Exchange - Q&A discussions - Community analysis and debates - Useful for: Addressing specific questions and interpretations

3. The Tolkien Forum - Discussion threads - Fan theories and analysis - Useful for: Understanding how readers engage with the material

Sources NOT Heavily Used (But Consulted)

1. Various character wikis (Henneth Annûn, etc.) - provided some quotes but largely duplicated Tolkien Gateway 2. The Rings of Power promotional materials - acknowledged but focused on book canon 3. Video game wikis - not relevant for canonical research 4. Some fan fiction sites - referenced but not used for factual content

Overall Assessment

Most Valuable Sources: 1. Tolkien Gateway (comprehensive, well-cited, cross-referenced) 2. Academic articles from Dallas Baptist, Journal of Tolkien Research, Mythlore 3. Tea with Tolkien guides (accessible, well-organized) 4. Silmarillion Writers' Guild character biographies Gaps in Available Information: - Limited direct quotes from The Silmarillion (copyrighted material not fully reproduced online) - Sparse detail on specific years between SA 2350-3175 (the middle decline period) - Limited information on Amandil's fate (deliberately mysterious in canon) - Few scholarly analyses of the linguistic rebellion specifically Abundance of Information: - Timeline and chronology (very well documented) - Character motivations and psychology (extensively analyzed) - Thematic interpretations (multiple scholarly perspectives) - Connections to Atlantis myth (thoroughly explored) - Theology of mortality (deeply analyzed from multiple angles) Recommendation for Script: The research provides abundant material for a comprehensive episode. The six discrete analytical themes have strong evidentiary support. The timeline is clear, the characters well-understood, and the thematic elements thoroughly documented. The challenge will be selecting and condensing rather than finding material.